The Logical Problem of Tawhid

Islam asserts an uncompromising monotheism through the doctrine of Tawhid, claiming that Allah is absolutely one—without parts, composition, or any internal distinctions. This absolute unity is central to Islamic theology and is often contrasted with the Christian Trinity, which Muslims reject as a form of polytheism. Yet Islam faces a serious internal contradiction: it affirms that the Qur’an, Allah’s speech (kalam), is uncreated and eternal. If the Qur’an is truly distinct from Allah (as speech is from the speaker) yet co-eternal with Him, then Islam has introduced multiplicity into the divine nature, directly violating the principle of absolute unity it seeks to uphold. This means that Tawhid, far from being the pristine monotheism it claims to be, contains within it the seeds of logical self-destruction—affirming both simplicity and multiplicity in the same breath. This contradiction, known as the Logical Problem of Tawhid, reveals that Islam’s own theology fails to consistently uphold the absolute unity it proclaims.

The Syllogism

1. If God is absolutely one in every respect (without composition or multiplicity), then nothing distinct from Him can be co-eternal.
2. The Quran is distinct from Allah in being a speech-act (kalam)¹“If any one of the idolaters should seek your protection [Prophet], grant it to him so that he may hear the word of God (kalam Allah), then take him to a place safe for him, for they are people who do not know.” —Surah At-Tawbah (9:6) This verse clearly identifies the Qur’an as kalam Allah—the speech or words of Allah., yet is said to be uncreated and eternal (per Sunni doctrine)²Al-Ashʿarī (d. 936), founder of the Ash‘arite school of theology, said: “His Speech is not created. Whoever says the Qur’an is created is an unbeliever.” —Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn wa Ikhtilāf al-Musallīn, ed. Muhammad Muhyid-Din ‘Abd al-Hamid (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1950), p. 290. Ibn Qudāmah (d. 1223), one of the most notable and influential thinkers of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, said: “We do not say that the Qur’an is created, nor do we say that it is the speech of Allah and then stop; rather we say: It is the speech of Allah, uncreated.” —Lum’at al-I’tiqād, §4.
3. Therefore, Islam posits multiplicity in the Godhead, contradicting its claim of absolute unity³Yet, Sunni theology insists on absolute divine simplicity in practice, denying composition or multiplicity in God. This creates a paradox. The kalam (speech) is distinct in mode or manifestation from the essence (dhāt) of Allah. But it cannot be separate or created, or that would compromise Allah’s perfection. Hence, the Qur’an is treated as both distinct (a speech act) and uncreated (eternal attribute), without being another god. This led to the famous inquisition (mihna) under the Abbasids, where those who denied the Qur’an’s uncreatedness (such as the Muʿtazilites and some scholars) were persecuted..
   1. In relation to Absolute Divine Simplicity as understood in classical theism, there is no distinction between God’s essence and His attributes. So, whatever is in God is God. His intellect is His essence. His will is His essence. His justice is His essence. There can be no “accidental” or external features in God, nor can He have any “co-eternal” companions, whether persons or attributes, that are really distinct from Him.
   2. From Absolute Divine Simplicity, it follows that:
      1. If something is distinct from God, it must be outside of God in some sense.
      2. If it’s outside of God, then it is not God.
      3. But God alone is uncreated, infinite, and eternal.
      4. Therefore, anything distinct from God must be created and thus not eternal.
   3. To posit an eternal thing (like the Qur’an) that is not God Himself, but still uncreated and distinct, violates the principle of divine simplicity and monotheism. It introduces a second eternal, which is metaphysically impossible and theologically polytheistic.

Logical Formalization of the Argument

• U(x) = “x is absolutely one (simple)”
• C(x) = “x is co-eternal with God”
• ¬I(x, y) = “x is not identical with y”
• D(x) = “x is distinct from God”
• Q = the Qur’an
• G = God

1. ∀x [(C(x) ∧ D(x)) → ¬U(G)]
   1. If anything co-eternal with God is distinct from Him, then God is not absolutely one.
2. C(Q) ∧ D(Q)
   1. The Qur’an is co-eternal with God and distinct from Him.
3. ¬U(G)
   1. Therefore, God is not absolutely one.

The doctrine of Tawhid is often held up as Islam’s strongest theological pillar—uncompromising, pure, and free from the complexities attributed to other faiths. Yet when examined through the lens of formal logic and classical metaphysics, it collapses under its own weight. The claim that the Qur’an is both uncreated and distinct from Allah introduces a second eternal that is not identical to God Himself, thereby violating the very principle of absolute unity that Tawhid seeks to enshrine. Islam’s insistence on the uncreatedness of the Qur’an, while simultaneously upholding divine simplicity, results in an incoherent system—one that cannot account for the metaphysical consistency it demands. The Logical Problem of Tawhid is not a Christian invention or a polemical straw man; it is a contradiction generated by Islam’s own affirmations. A theology that fails to reconcile its own first principles cannot serve as a coherent account of the divine.

Common Objections

1. The Qur’an is not separate from Allah, but one of His attributes.
   1. If the Qur’an is an attribute, and that attribute is distinct from Allah’s essence, this introduces composition into God. In classical theism, God’s attributes are not accidents or parts, they are identical to His essence. Therefore, to distinguish kalam from essence while still calling it uncreated is to deny divine simplicity.
2. God can speak eternally without creating multiplicity.
   1. Speech is a relation, from a speaker to a word or expression. If it is truly distinct in any way (in form, expression, or act), and not identical with the divine essence, it constitutes a real distinction. Real distinctions within God violate simplicity unless explained by hypostatic relations (which Islam denies).
3. The Qur’an is not a separate thing, it is God’s self-expression.
   1. A self-expression that is not identical to the self introduces duality. Either the expression is identical with God (in which case, the Qur’an is Allah, which Sunni Islam denies), or it is not (which makes it a second eternal).

Footnotes

• 1
  “If any one of the idolaters should seek your protection [Prophet], grant it to him so that he may hear the word of God (kalam Allah), then take him to a place safe for him, for they are people who do not know.” —Surah At-Tawbah (9:6) This verse clearly identifies the Qur’an as kalam Allah—the speech or words of Allah.
• 2
  Al-Ashʿarī (d. 936), founder of the Ash‘arite school of theology, said: “His Speech is not created. Whoever says the Qur’an is created is an unbeliever.” —Maqālāt al-Islāmiyyīn wa Ikhtilāf al-Musallīn, ed. Muhammad Muhyid-Din ‘Abd al-Hamid (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1950), p. 290. Ibn Qudāmah (d. 1223), one of the most notable and influential thinkers of the Hanbali school of orthodox Sunni jurisprudence, said: “We do not say that the Qur’an is created, nor do we say that it is the speech of Allah and then stop; rather we say: It is the speech of Allah, uncreated.” —Lum’at al-I’tiqād, §4
• 3
  Yet, Sunni theology insists on absolute divine simplicity in practice, denying composition or multiplicity in God. This creates a paradox. The kalam (speech) is distinct in mode or manifestation from the essence (dhāt) of Allah. But it cannot be separate or created, or that would compromise Allah’s perfection. Hence, the Qur’an is treated as both distinct (a speech act) and uncreated (eternal attribute), without being another god. This led to the famous inquisition (mihna) under the Abbasids, where those who denied the Qur’an’s uncreatedness (such as the Muʿtazilites and some scholars) were persecuted.